NCERT Solutions / Notes Class 10 Social Studies Civics Chapter 1 Power Sharing

NCERT Solutions, Question Answer and Mind Map for Class 10 Social Studies Civics Chapter 1, “Power Sharing,” is a study material package designed to help students understand the various forms of power-sharing arrangements in a democracy.

NCERT Solutions provide detailed explanations and answers to the questions presented in the chapter. The solutions cover all the topics in the chapter, including the forms of power-sharing, the advantages and disadvantages of power-sharing, and the role of power-sharing in the stability of a democracy. They also provide tips on how to answer different types of questions, including short answer, long answer, and multiple-choice questions.

The question-answer section of the chapter covers a wide range of topics, from the different forms of power-sharing, such as horizontal and vertical power-sharing, to the importance of decentralization in a democracy. It also includes questions on the role of power-sharing in conflict resolution, the challenges faced by power-sharing arrangements, and the need for power-sharing in a diverse society.

The mind map provides a visual representation of the key topics covered in the chapter, allowing students to understand the connections between different concepts and ideas. The mind map covers the different forms of power-sharing, the advantages and disadvantages of power-sharing, and the role of power-sharing in maintaining a stable democracy.

NCERT Solutions / Notes Class 10 Social Studies Civics Chapter 1 Power Sharing

Power sharing refers to the sharing or division of power between various political parties and various sections of society.

Power Sharing in Belgium and Sri Lanka

Belgium

Belgium, a small European country, has Dutch-, French- and German-speaking populations. While 59% of the total population of the country live in the Flemish region and speak Dutch, the other 40% of the people live in the Wallonia region and speak French. In Brussels, the capital of Belgium, about 80% of the people speak French, while the remaining 20% speak Dutch.

Communities and regions of Belgium

The minority French-speaking population was rich and powerful. This was resented by the Dutch- speaking population as they received the benefits of education quite late. This sparked tension between the two communities. However, this problem was solved by the political leaders of Belgium who wanted the people to coexist peacefully with one another.

Accommodation in Belgium

In Belgium, the government handled the community difference very well. Between 1970 and 1993, Belgian leaders amended their constitution four times and came up with a new model to run the government.

Here are some of the elements of the Belgian model.

• The Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the Central Government. Some special laws require the support of the majority of members from each linguistic group. Thus, no single community can make decisions unilaterally.
• The state governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.
• Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
• Apart from the Central and the State Government, there is a third kind of government. This ‘community government’ is elected by people belonging to one language community – Dutch, French and German-speaking – no matter where they live. This government has the power regarding cultural, educational and language-related issues.

These arrangements in Belgium were successful and avoided any kind of tension between the two linguistic communities. This also negated any possibilities of the division of the country on linguistic lines.

Sri Lanka

It is an island nation having a population of 2 crores, about the same as in Haryana. Sri Lanka has a diverse population. The major social groups are the Sinhala-speakers (74%) and the Tamil-speakers (18%). Among Tamils, there are two subgroups, “Sri Lankan Tamils” and “Indian Tamils”.

• Sri Lankan Tamils (13 percent) – Tamil natives of the country
• Indian Tamils (5 percent) – came from India during the colonial period as plantation workers.

You can see the map (right) to know the population distribution of different communities of Sri Lanka.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

• Sri Lanka became independent of colonial rule in 1948. There were two major communities— Sinhalese and Tamilians. The Sinhalese were in majority, and hence, after being elected to power, the Sinhalese leaders followed a series of majoritarian policies in order to ascertain the supremacy of their community.
• By an Act passed in 1956, Sinhala was recognised as the only official language of the country. Preferential positions in government jobs were given to the Sinhalese.
• All these measures led to dissent among the Tamilian community which finally culminated into a civil war, with the Tamilians demanding the formation of an independent Tamil state in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka. Thousands of people were killed in the civil war.

We find that both Belgium and Sri Lanka dealt with the issue of power sharing differently. In Belgium, the leaders respected the interests of both linguistic groups and avoided any possibilities of clashes among the Dutch- and French-speaking communities. In Sri Lanka, however, the assertive policies of the majority community led to a civil war threatening the unity and integrity of the country.

Need for Power Sharing

Power sharing is desirable because of two main reasons. They are

• Prudential reason: It reduces any chances of conflicts between social groups. By avoiding conflicts, political stability and unity of the country can be maintained. Dictatorship of the majority community can be oppressive for the minority and can even wreck the majority community as well.
• Moral reason: Power sharing is the true spirit of democracy. Every section of community has the right to be consulted on how they are to be governed. Governance should be carried out keeping in mind the larger interests of each section of the community.

Different Forms of Power Sharing

In democracies, power is shared in various ways. These are

1. Sharing of power among different organs of government

• A government has three organs-legislature, executive and judiciary. Separation or division of power among the three organs ensures that no organ becomes too powerful.
• In such a system, one organ also keeps a check on the other organ of the government. This results in maintaining balance of power.
• For example, judges who are appointed by the executive can check the functioning of the executive or the legislature. The ministers are also responsible to the Parliament. This is called a system of checks and balances.

2. Power sharing among different levels of government

• In a federal government, there are two main levels of government-the Union or the Central Government and the State Government.
• While the Central Government looks after the administration and law and order of the entire country as a whole, the State Governments look after the administration and law and order in their own states.
• Municipal corporations and village panchayats are the local units of administration.

3. Sharing of power among different social groups

• Sharing of power among various social, linguistic or ethnic communities is another form of power sharing.
• Representation given to the weaker sections of society and religious minorities in the Government ensure the diversity and unity of the country.
• In India, the system of reserved constituencies in the assemblies and in the Parliament is an example of power sharing among different social and ethnic groups.

4. Power sharing among political parties, pressure groups and movements

• In a democracy, more than one political party exists. People have the freedom to vote for any political party. Such competition among various political parties guarantees that power is not concentrated in the hands of one political party only.
• Sometimes, an alliance of one or more political parties is voted to power. This is known as a coalition government.
• Many sections of society such as traders, farmers and workers may form their own interest groups and can influence the decision-making body of the Government. This ensures that voices of each section of society are heard.

Thus we find that power sharing is an important requirement and feature of democratic societies.

Class 10 Social Studies Civics Chapter 1 Important Questions

Multiple Choice questions-

1. Which of the following is an example of horizontal sharing of power? [CBSE 2011]

(a) Power sharing between different states.
(b) Power sharing between different organs of the government.
(c) Power sharing between different levels of the government.
(d) Power sharing between different political parties.

2. Who elects the community government in Belgium? [CBSE 2011]

(a) People belonging to one language community only.
(b) By the leader of Belgium.
(c) The citizens of the whole country.
(d) The community leaders of Belgium.

3. The Community Government signifies:

(a) The powers of government regarding community development.
(b) The powers of the government regarding law making for the community.
(c) The powers of the government regarding cultural, educational and language related issues.
(d) The government enjoys privileges to safeguard the interest of a particular community.

4. The word ‘ethnic’ signifies:

(a) different religions.
(b) social division on shared culture.
(c) a violent conflict between opposite groups.
(d) a careful calculation of gains and losses.

5. Power sharing is:

(a) the very spirit of democracy
(b) separation of powers at different levels.
(c) system of checks and balances.
(d) a type of balancing powers.

6. Choose the correct option: [CBSE 2011]

Power sharing is desirable because it helps:

(a) To increase pressure on government.
(b) To reduce possibilities of conflicts.
(c) To generate awareness among people.
(d) To increase percentage of voters.

7. System of ‘checks and balances’ means:

(a) Horizontal distribution of powers.
(b) Separation of powers.
(c) Put a check on the exercise of unlimited powers of the organs of government by maintaining a balance of power among various institutions.
(d) Federal division of powers

8. Which of the following features are common to Indian and Belgian form of power-sharing arrangements?

A. Power is shared among governments at different levels.
B. Power is shared among different organs of government.
C. Power is shared among different social groups.
D. Power is shared among different parties and takes the form of competition.

(a) A, B, C, D
(b) B, C and D
(c) A and C
(d) A, C and D

9. In dealing with power sharing, which one of the following statements is NOT correct about democracy?

(a) People are the source of all political power. !
(b) In a democracy, people rule themselves j through institutions of self-governance.
(c) In a democracy, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society.
(d) In a democracy, if the power to decide is dispersed, it is not possible to take quick decisions and enforce them.

10. A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority is:

(a) Power Sharing
(b) Central Government
(c) Majoritarianism
(d) Community Government

11. A system of ‘checks and balances’ is another name for which one of the following power-sharing arrangements:

(a) Power sharing among different social groups.
(b) Vertical division of power or power shared among different levels of government.
(c) Horizontal division of power or power shared among different organs of the government.
(d) Power sharing in the form of political parties, pressure groups and governments.

12. Which one of the following statements about power-sharing arrangements is correct?

(a) Power sharing is necessary only in societies which have religious, linguistic or ethnic divisions.
(b) Power sharing is suitable only for big countries that have regional divisions.
(c) Every society needs some form of power sharing even if it is small or does not have social divisions.
(d) Power-sharing is not necessary at all.

13. Consider the following statements about the ethnic composition of Sri Lanka:

A. Major social groups are the Sinhala- speaking (74%) and Tamil-speaking (18%)?
B. Among the Tamils, there are two sub-groups, Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils.
C. There are about 7% Christians, who are both Tamil and Sinhala.
D. Most of the Sinhala-speaking are Hindus or Muslims and most of the Tamil-speaking are Buddhists.

Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) A, B, C
(b) A, B, D
(c) B, C, D
(d) A, B, C, D

14. Prudential reasons of power sharing stress on the facts that:

A. It ensures the stability of political order.
B. It reduces the possibility of conflict between social groups.
C. It gives a fair share to minority.
D. It is the very spirit of democracy.

Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) A, B
(b) A, C and D
(c) All are correct
(d) A, B & C

15. How many people speak French and Dutch in the capital city of Brussels?

(a) 60 percent French 40 percent Dutch
(b) 50% Dutch 50% French
(c) 80% French 20% Dutch
(d) 80% Dutch 20% French

Very Short-

1. What is Majoritarianism?
2. Mention one step which was taken by Sri Lankan Government to create Majoritarianism.
3. State one prudential reason and one moral reason for power sharing from the Indian context.
4.Name the country which has lost peace due to Majoritarianism.
5. What is the difference between prudential and moral reasons for power sharing?
6. Name two subgroups of Tamils in Sri Lanka.
7. What is the system of checks and balances of power sharing?
8. State two main bases of the social divisions in Sri Lanka.
9. Who formed majority in terms of population in Sri Lanka?
10. Who formed majority in terms of population in Belgium?

Short Questions-

1. How Belgian government solved its ethnic Problem ?
2. What is majoritariamisum? How it has led to alienation of majority community in Sri Lanka?
3. Describe three demands of Sri Lankan Tamils. How did they struggle for their independence?
4. How is power shared among different organs of the government, I.e., legislature, executives and judiciary?
5. How is federal government better than a unitary government? Explain with examples of Belgium and Sri Lanka.
6. Write down the features of Horizontal division of power sharing.
7. Write Down the features of Vertical division of power sharing.
8. Give a comparative analysis between Belgium and India in the sphere of area.
9. What is the reason for tension in Belgium?
10. What was the background of Sri Lankan Tamils?

Long Questions-

1. How are the ethnic problem solved in Belgium? Mention any four steps which were taken by the governments to solve the problem?
2. Explain the power sharing arrangement among the different political parties, pressure groups and movements.
3. Explain the power sharing arrangement among the different organs of the government.
4. Explain the power sharing arrangement among the different social groups.
5. Explain the power sharing arrangement among the different levels of the government.
6. What are advantages enjoyed by the Sinhala Community in Sri Lanka? Describe the consequences.
7. Describe the population composition of Sri Lanka and the reasons for the formation of Majoritarian government in 1948.
8. What measures were adopted by the Belgium government to accommodate regional and cultural diversities?

Assertion Reason Questions:

1. DIRECTION: Mark the option which is most suitable:

1. If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
2. If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true, but reason (R) is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).
3. Assertion (A) is true, but reason (R) is false.
4. Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are false.

Assertion(A): Community government in Belgium allows to share power among religious and linguistic groups.
Reason(R): In India there are legal and constitutional arrangements where by socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration.

2. DIRECTION: Mark the option which is most suitable:

1. If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
2. If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true, but reason (R) is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).
3. Assertion (A) is true, but reason (R) is false.
4. Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are false.

Assertion(A): Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1949.
Reason(R): The leaders of the Sinhala community sought to secure dominance over government by virtue of their majority.

Case Study Questions:

1. Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow:

Power may also be shared among different social groups, such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement. In some countries there are constitutional and legal arrangements whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration. This type of arrangement is meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the government. This method is used to give minority communities a fair share in power.

1. Power sharing means:

1. System of political arrangement in which power is shared between ministers of the government.
2. System of political arrangement in which power is shared between different organs of the government.
3. System of political arrangement in which power is shared between different levels of the government.
4. All of the above.
5. Which one is not a benefit of Power sharing?

1. Reduces the possibilities of conflicts between social groups.
2. Ensures political stability in the long run.
3. All the political parties get their expected share.
4. It upholds the spirit of democracy.
5. Apart from the Central and State Government, there is a third type of government in Belgium called the:

1. Regional Government.
2. State Government.
3. Union Government.
4. Community Government.
5. Which is not a feature of Community government?

1. Apart from the Central and the State Government, this is a third type of government.
2. It is elected by the people belonging to one community that is Dutch, French, German speaking.
3. It is mainly based on cooperation and tolerance.
4. It does not have the power regarding cultural, educational and language related issues.
5. Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow:

Power is shared among different organs of government, such as the legislature, executive and judiciary. Let us call this horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers. Such a separation ensures that none of the organs can exercise unlimited power. Each organ checks the others. This results in a balance of power among various institutions. Last year we studied that in a democracy, even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies. Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures. This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.

1. Power sharing between different organs of the government is being referred as:

1. Horizontal distribution of power.
2. Vertical division of power.
3. Union Government.
4. Community Government.
5. Power Sharing is between:

1. Legislature, executive and parliament.
2. Legislature, executive and judiciary.
3. Legislature, high court, and judiciary.
4. None of the above.
5. It allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers is known as:

1. Circular distribution of power.
2. Vertical distribution of power.
3. Horizontal distribution of power.
4. All of the above.
5. Judges are appointed by the executive; they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislature known as:

1. Horizontal distribution of power.
2. Vertical distribution of power.
3. Checks and balances.
4. All of the above.

MCQ Answers-

1. Answer: b
2. Answer: a
3. Answer: c
4. Answer: b
5. Answer: a
6. Answer: b
7. Answer: c
8. Answer: (b) B, C and D
9. Answer: d
10. Answer: c
11. Answer: c
12. Answer: c
13. Answer: (a) A, B, C
14. Answer: d
15. Answer: c

Very Short Answers-

1. Ans. A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whatever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minorities.
2. Ans. In 1956, an act was passed to recognize Sinhala as the official language.
3. Ans. India is a multinational society and India is a democratic country.
4. Ans. Sri Lanka.
5. Ans. Prudential reasons stress that power sharing will bring out better outcome or results; where as moral reasons emphasize the very act of power sharing as valuable.
6. Ans. Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Origin Tamils.
7. Ans. Under this system, one organ of the government keeps the check over other. None of the organs can exercise unlimited power.
8. Ans. Religion and Language
9. Ans. Sinhalese Buddhist formed majority.
10. Ans. The Dutch formed majority

Short Answers-

1. Ans. The Path of accommodation adopted in Belgium.

a). Dutch and French speaking ministers shall be equal in the central govt.
b). Many Powers of the central government have been given to state govt. The state govt are not subordinate to the central govt.
b). Many Powers of the central government have been given to state govt. The state govt are not subordinate to the central govt.
c). Brussels has a separate govt in which both the communities have equal representation.
d). There is a third kind of govt called community govt elected by the people belonging to Dutch, French and German no matter where they live.

2. Ans. The dominance of majority community to rule the country in whichever way it wants totally disregarding the wishes and needs of minority community is known as majoritarianism.

a). In srilanka mainly there are two communities- Sinhala and Tamils the leaders of the sinhala community sought to secure dominance over the govt by virtue of their majority. Sinhala has been recognized as the official language of the country by disregarding
b). Government followed a preferential policy favouring sinhalased in university portions and govt jobs.
c). The govt encouraged and protected Budhism The distrust has turned into a civil war that has caused a setback to social cultural and economic life of Srilanka.

3. Ans.

a).Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
b). Regional autonomy
c). Equal opportunity in securing jobs and education.

They formed several political organizations, but when the government tried to suppress their activities by force, this led to civil war

4. Ans.

a).This type of power sharing is known as horizontal power sharing as well as all the organs is placed at the same level and each organ can check the other.
b). For example even through ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the parliament.

5. Ans. Federalism is a system of government under which power is divided between a central authority and its various constituent units.

a). In federal government power is shared among the different levels of government but in unitary government all powers are in the hands of a single unit.
b). The Belgium leaders tried to solve the ethnic problem by respecting the feeling and interest if different committees and regions by establishing a federal government, whereas the Sri Lankan Government tried to solve the problem through Majoritarianism.

6. Ans. Horizontal Division of power, in which power is shared among different organs of the government like legislature, Executive and Judiciary.

a). Different organs of the government exercise the power.
b). It specifies the concept of check and balance.
c). It ensures the concept of the expansion of the democracy.
d). Examples: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary are the organs Government of India

7. Ans. In vertical division of Power Sharing power is shared among the different levels of the government like Union Government, state government and Lower levels.

a). Different levels of the government exercise the power of the government.
b). No specification of the system of checks and balance.
c). It ensures the concept of deepening of democracy.
d). Central Government, State Government and Panchayat Raj are the example of the Vertical division of Power Sharing.

8. Ans.

a).Area wise Belgium is a small country in Europe. It is smaller in area than that of Haryana in India.
b). It has borders with Netherlands, France and Germany.
c). Regarding population it has a population over one crore, about half of the population of Haryana.
d). It has a very complex ethnic composition comprising various language speaking communities than India which is a secular and integrated country.

9. Ans.

a). The Dutch form 59%, the French form 40% and the German about 1% comprises the population of Belgium.
b). The French community is in majority in the capital of Belgium, Brussels.
c). They are rich and powerful and this is not liked by the Dutch.
d). The Dutch speaking community got the benefit of economic development and education much later showed the resentment.
e). This led to conflict between French and Dutch speaking people.

10. Ans.

a). Their forefathers came from India as plantation workers during colonial period.
b). Tamils who are brought as indentured laborers from India by British colonists to work in estate plantation are called Indian Origin Tamils re 5%.
c). Sri Lankan Tamils live in the north eastern part of the country.

Long Answers-

1. Ans.

a). Equal no of Ministers for both the groups: The Belgium constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall be equal in the central government. Some special laws require the support of majority of members from each linguistic group.
b). More powers to the state government: Under the proper power sharing arrangement many powers of the central government were given to state government for the two regions of the country. The state governments were not subordinate to the central government.
c). Equal representation at state and the central level: A separate government has been set up at Brussels in which both the communities have equal representation.
d). Formation of community government: A third kind of government was made that is community government. This community government is elected by the people belonging to one language community. Dutch, French and German speaking people have their own community government.

2. Ans.

a). In a democracy power is also shared among the different political parties, pressure groups and movements.
b). Democracy provides the citizens a choice to choose their rulers. This choice is provided by the various political parties, who contest elections to win. Such competition ensures that power does not remain in one hand.
c). In the long run power is shared among different political parties that represent different ideologies and social groups.
d). Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties from an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
e). In a democracy, various pressure groups and movements also remain active. They will also have a share in governmental power, either through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

3. Ans.

a). In a democracy power is shared among the different organs of the government such as Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. This is also called as the horizontal distribution of power sharing.
b). Legislature is lawmaking body, Executive is law implementing body and Judiciary is dispute solving body of the Government.
c). Because it also allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different power.
d). Under this kind of power sharing arrangements, no organ of the government can exercise unlimited powers.
e). Each organ has its own power and checks the powers of other.
f). This results in the in a balance of power among various institutions.

4. Ans.

a). In a democracy, especially in multiethnic society, power is also shared among social groups such as the religious and linguistic groups.
b). Community government in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
c). In some countries, there are constitutional and legal arrangements whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration.
d). In India to provide share in power to backward and other classes, a system of reserved constituencies in assemblies and the parliament is followed.
e). This type arrangement is meant to give proper share in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the Government.

5. Ans. 

a) Under this people choose separate government at separate levels for example a general government for the entire country and governments at the provincial, sub-national or regional level.
b). Such a general government for the entire country is usually called a federal government.
c). In India we refer to it as the union government. The governments at the provincial or regional level are called by different names in different countries.
d). In India these are known as state governments. This system is not followed in all the countries of the world.
e). The division of power is more important under such type of Governments. A government at different levels enjoys different powers which are given to them by the constitution.
f). The divisions of power involving higher and lower levels of government are called vertical division of power.

6. Ans.

(a) The leaders of the Sinhala community tried to ensure the dominance of their community over the other communities of Sri Lanka after independence.
(b) The adopted a series of majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(c) In 1956, an act was passed to recognize Sinhala as the only official language.
(d) Sinhala people were given special preference in government jobs and university admissions.
(e) Buddhism was declared the national religion.
(f) Consequences: All these government measures increased the feeling of alienation among the other Communities. They felt that their language and culture were not given due importance. They also felt that the constitution and the policies of the government denied them to give equal political powers. As a result their relations with the Sinhala community worsened.

7. Ans.

(a) It is an Island nation south of India. Tamil natives are called Sri Lankan Tamils and formed 13% population.
(b) The Indian Tamils whose forefathers had come from India as planatation workers formed 5% population.
(c) The Sinhala Buddhist, who was 74% of the population, formed the majority government after independence in 1948.
(d) Tamils are either Hindus or Muslims, 7% of the people are Christian who are both Tamil and Sinhala.
(e) Sinhalese enjoy majority and can impose their will on the entire country.

8. Ans.

(a) In 1970-193, the constitution of Belgium was amended for times to accommodate linguistic, cultural and regional differences.
(b) The Dutch and French speaking ministers were equal number in the central government.
(c) Special laws required the support of majority of members from each linguistic group.
(d) Many powers of the central government had been given to state governments of the two regions of the country.
(e) Brussels had a separate government where both communities were given equal representation.
(f) Community government of each section was also introduced.

Assertion Reason Answer:

1. (b) If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true, but reason (R) is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).
2. (d) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are false.

Case Study Answer:

1. i   (d) All of the above.
2. (a) Reduces the possibilities of conflicts between social groups.
3. (b) State Government.
4. (a) Apart from the Central and the State Government, this is a third type of government.
5. i    (b) Vertical division of power.
6. (c) Legislature, high court, and judiciary.
7. (b) Vertical distribution of power.
8. (d) All of the above.