NCERT Solutions / Notes Class 10 Social Studies History Chapter 1 Rise Of Nationalism In Europe

NCERT Solutions, Question Answer and Mind Map for Class 10 Social Studies History Chapter 1, “The Rise of Nationalism in Europe,” is a study material package designed to help students understand the history of Europe during the 19th century and the emergence of nationalism.

Page Contents

NCERT Solutions provide detailed explanations and answers to the questions presented in the chapter. The solutions cover all the topics in the chapter, including the emergence of nationalism in different European countries, the role of culture and language in the growth of nationalism, and the impact of nationalism on the political map of Europe.

Class 10 Social Studies History Chapter 1 Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The question-answer section of the chapter covers a wide range of topics, from the factors that led to the rise of nationalism to the impact of nationalism on Europe’s political and cultural landscape. It also includes questions on the different forms of nationalism, such as liberal nationalism, cultural nationalism, and revolutionary nationalism.

The mind map provides a visual representation of the key topics covered in the chapter, allowing students to understand the connections between different concepts and ideas. The mind map covers the factors that contributed to the rise of nationalism, the various forms of nationalism, and the impact of nationalism on Europe.

NCERT Solutions / Notes Class 10 Social Studies History Chapter 1 Rise of Nationalism in Europe with Mind Map PDF Download

Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

The French Revolution is regarded as one of the most important events in history. It not only gave a huge setback to monarchy but also gave the first clear expression to the idea of ‘nationalism’. The French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to the French citizens. The Constitution in France came into existence and citizens were awarded with the rights of liberty and equality.

The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. These were:

The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) was introduced.
The Estates General was renamed the ‘National Assembly’. Its members were elected by active citizens (citizens who paid taxes to the government).
The new French flag replaced the former royal standard.
Nation now became supreme. Hymns were composed and oaths were taken on the name of the nation. It was regarded as a ‘fatherland’.
The administrative system was centralised, and uniform laws were formulated for all citizens.
A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted, and internal custom duties and dues were abolished.
The French language was made the common language of the people residing in France.
The revolutionaries declared that their next motive is to help other people of Europe to become nations.

The French Revolution impacted the middle class including professionals and students in several countries such as Switzerland, Holland, Italy and Belgium. They also wanted to throw off the monarchies in their countries and become nations.

Napoleon – Child of the French Revolution

The rise of Napoleon marked the rise of monarchy in France. However, Napoleon implemented some revolutionary ideas and principles in France. He did this by taking the following steps:

He introduced the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code. This Code instituted the principle of equality of all people before the law, right to property was established and all privileges enjoyed by the people of high birth and class were abolished.

NCERT Solutions / Notes Class 10 Social Studies History Chapter 1 Rise of Nationalism in Europe – Class 10 Social Studies History Chapter 1 — Napoleon Bonaparte is known as the ‘Child of the French Revolution’.

This Code was also promulgated to other parts of Europe which were controlled by France.
In many European countries such as Switzerland, Germany, Dutch Republic and Italy, he simplified the administrative machinery, ended the feudal system and liberated the peasants from serfdom.

In towns, restrictions imposed on guilds were removed, and transport and communication systems were improved. Businessmen, small industrialists and traders began to realise the importance and advantages of a uniform system of laws.
People of other European countries initially welcomed the French armies but later began to oppose them because of increased taxation and censorship imposed on them.

NCERT Solutions for Class 6th SSt

Chapter 1

The Beginning of Nationalism in Europe

During the mid-eighteenth century, there were no nation-states in Europe. Italy, Germany and Switzerland were not one nation but were divided into various kingdoms. Central and Eastern Europe was under absolute monarchies. Several factors led to the emergence of the idea of nationalism in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Some of these were the rise of the middle class, liberalism and the rise of a new conservatism after 1815 and its opposition by the people.

Rise of the new middle class: The aristocratic class in Europe was a dominant class, but it was comprised of only a few people. Most of the people in Europe were peasants. The Industrial Revolution resulted in the emergence of the labour or working class. Many small industrialists, businessmen and professionals who formed the middle class gained prominence. These classes supported the abolition of aristocratic privileges, demanded equality and advocated the idea of nationalism.

Liberalism: The middle class stood for ‘liberalism’. Liberalism in political terms stood for equality, freedom, formation and working of government by consent. In the economic field, liberalism advocated the freedom of markets and the abolition of unjust duties on the movement of goods from one territory to the other. This led to the beginning of economic nationalism in Europe which contributed to the rise of nationalism. The new commercial class argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital. Later, several measures were introduced. Some of these were

In 1834, a customs union called ‘Zollverein’ was formed at the initiative of Prussia. Several German states joined this union
The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
The introduction of railways created mobility leading to national unification.
The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility harnessing economic interests to national unification.

We find that a wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.

Rise of New Conservatism and its opposition by the people

After the defeat of Napoleon, there was a rise of new conservatism.

The Congress of Vienna was held in 1815 in which Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria participated to draw up settlements for Europe. The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. Some results of the Congress of Vienna were:

Monarchy was restored in France and strengthened in Prussia, Belgium and Austria. Autocratic governments were set up in these countries.
A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.

Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate dissent and imposed censorship on those materials and articles in newspapers, books, plays and songs that reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom.

These conservative ideas gave rise to liberal nationalists and revolutionaries. Liberals were opposed to monarchial governments. They advocated liberty and freedom and the creation of nation-states. After 1815, many liberal nationalists went underground and established several secret societies.

The Age of Revolutions (1830-48)

Nationalism emerged not only as a result of wars and battles. Culture played an important role in

creating the idea of the nation. Art, painting, poetry, stories and music played an important role in strengthening the feeling of nationalism.

Romanticism was a cultural movement in which the artists romanticised human feelings and emotions. This was done to create a common cultural past

as the basis of a nation. Stress was laid on vernacular languages and folklore. This gave communities who were living under the control of other powerful nations a cultural identity. For example, the people of Poland who were under Russian control defied the ban on speaking Polish. This was a kind of struggle to overthrow the Russian rule from their territory and to become an independent nation. Similarly, German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – ‘das volk’.

The emphasis was laid on using vernacular language and the collection of local folklore not only to discover an ancient national spirit but also to carry the message of modern nationalists to illiterate people.

Hunger, Hardships and Revolts

The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. It was because:

During the 1830s, there was a large-scale unemployment in Europe. In most of the European countries, employment opportunities were less whereas job seekers were many.
Cities had come to be extremely overcrowded. As a result, slums had started coming up as more people migrated from the rural to urban areas.
Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from the imports of cheap machine-made goods from England where industrialisation was more advanced, especially in textile production.
Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread poverty in town and country.

The Revolutions of the Liberals

The year 1848 was a year of revolts. These revolts were led by the educated middle class.

In the revolution of February 1848, the French monarch was dethroned and the country became a republic based on universal male suffrage (right to vote was given to all men).
In other parts of Europe nation-states did not yet exist such as Germany, Italy and Poland. The men and women of the liberal middle classes demanded constitutionalism with national unification
In Germany, people of educated middle class came together and decided to vote for an all- German National Assembly.

On 18May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to take their places in the Frankfurt Parliament. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subjected to Parliamentary control.
The Prussian monarch Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected the constitution. The German Parliament which resisted the demands of the workers and artisans lost their support. Later, the parliament led by the educated middle class was forced to disband.
At this time, women all over Europe campaigned for securing voting rights.

Unification of Germany and Italy

Germany and Italy were European nations which were divided into various kingdoms. The unification of Germany and Italy were important events in world history.

Unification of Germany

The newly emerged middle class in Germany in 1848 tried to unite several German kingdoms which were suppressed by monarchies and large landowners into one nation state governed by an elected body.
Prussia, a German kingdom, took the leadership in uniting various German states. Otto von Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, aimed to achieve the goal of unification with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy.

C:\Users\shubhalik\Desktop\220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-023-06A,_Otto_von_Bismarck.jpg — **Otto von Bismarck**

Spread over seven years, the Prussian army with the help of the Austrian, French and Danish armies fought three wars and successfully incorporated all the small German kingdoms. This marked the process of the completion of German unification.
In 1871, William I was declared as the emperor of Germany at the Palace of

Versailles. The process of the unification of Germany exhibited the power of the Prussian state. Many new reforms were initiated in banking, currency, administration and judiciary in Germany.

Unification of Italy

Italy was also politically fragmented into various small states which were ruled by monarchies.
During the mid-nineteenth century, only the state of Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by the Italian monarchy. The northern states were under the Austrian monarchy, Central Italy was under the control of the Pope and the states in the south were under the control of the Bourbon kings of Spain.

NCERT Solutions for Class 6th SSt

Chapter 1

Giuseppe Mazzini was a revolutionary who actively supported the unification of the Italian states. For achieving this aim, he formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’.
The state of Sardinia-Piedmont took the responsibility of fulfilling this task after the failed uprisings in 1831 and 1848. The king of Sardinia-Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II, was actively helped by his Chief Minister Cavour. Cavour led the process of the unification of Italy.

C:\Users\shubhalik\Desktop\download (3).jpg — **Giuseppe Garibaldi**

In 1859, the state of Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrians. In 1860, the Italian forces helped by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his volunteers marched into southern Italy and unified it with Italy.
King Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of united Italy. The complete unification of Italy was achieved in 1871.

Great Britain – A Nation State

The transformation of Great Britain into a nation-state was not a sudden process. There was no one British nation before the eighteenth century.
People residing in the British Isles were mainly English, Welsh, Scots and Irish. These ethnic groups had distinct political and social traditions.
As the English nation grew in wealth and power, it began to dominate the other islands.
In 1688, the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy. The Parliament passed the Act of Union, 1707, by which England and Scotland were unified resulting in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’.
The Parliament was dominated by the English, and the political and cultural identities of the Scots were systematically suppressed. The Catholics in Scotland were brutally suppressed whenever they wanted to regain their independence.
Ireland was inhabited by Protestants and Catholics. The English supported the Protestants and established their rule with their help and support. Catholics, who constituted a majority in Ireland, revolted against the British on numerous occasions but were suppressed.
Ireland forcibly became a part of Britain in 1801. The English language dominated. Both Scotland and Ireland were subordinate to England.

The idea of a nation was expressed in various forms by artists and painters. Most of the nations were portrayed as female figures. The female figure became an allegory of the nation. ‘Marianne’ in France and ‘Germania’ in Germany became allegories of a nation.

Nationalism and Imperialism

Nationalism which is the feeling of love for one’s own nation became intense and narrow minded in the mid-nineteenth century. Many nations became intolerant of each other and competed with one another for the control of territories.
Imperialism is territorial control of a region or a country by another country by using military control.
This feeling of nationalism became intense in the Balkan region. The Balkan region formerly comprised the present-day territories of Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Greece, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. The people in these countries were called Slavs.
The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in the region made the situation very explosive in the region as every state was jealous of one another and hoped to gain independence at the cost of the other.
One by one, the European nationalities in the Balkan broke away from the control of the Ottoman Empire and declared independence.
As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
During this time, many powerful European nations such as England, France, Russia and Germany competed to gain control in the Balkan region. This competition for gaining prominence in the region finally led to the First World War in 1914.
Later, several Asian and African countries which were colonised by the European nations began to oppose imperial domination. Anti- imperial movements that began in colonies were nationalist in nature as people were fighting to form independent nation states.

Important Questions

Multiple Choice Questions-

Elle, the measuring unit in Germany was used to measure:

(a) cloth
(b) thread
(c) land
(d) height

Zollevrein started in 1834 in Prussia refers to a:

(a) Trade Union
(b) Customs Union
(c) Labour Union
(d) Farmer’s Union

What do the saints, angels and Christ symbolise in the Utopian vision?

(a) Equality among people
(b) Fraternity among nations
(c) Freedom of nations
(d) Resentment against nations

Who were the ‘Junkers’?

(a) Soldiers
(b) Large landowners
(c) Aristocracy
(d) Weavers

Which treaty recognised Greece as an independent nation?

(a) Treaty of Constantinople, 1832
(b) Treaty of Vienna, 1815
(c) Treaty of Versailles, 1871
(d) None of these

Which treaty recognised Greece as an independent nation?

(a) Treaty of Constantinople, 1832
(b) Treaty of Vienna, 1815
(c) Treaty of Versailles, 1871
(d) None of these

Which of the following group of powers collectively defeated Napoleon?

(a) England, France, Italy, Russia
(b) England, Austria, Spain, Russia
(c) Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain
(d) Britain, Prussia, Russia, Italy

Romanticism refers to a:

(a) cultural movement
(b) religious movement
(c) political movement
(d) literary movement

Which one of the following types of government was functioning in France before the revolution of 1789?

(a) Dictatorship
(b) Military
(c) Body of French Citizen
(d) Monarchy

Which of the following countries is considered as the ‘cradle of European civilization’?

(a) England
(b) France
(c) Greece
(d) Russia

Choose the correct nationality of the artist Frederic Sorrieu who visualised in his painting a society made up of Democratic and Social Republic.

(a) German
(b) Swiss
(c) French
(d) American

‘Nationalism’, which emerged as a force in the late 19th century, means

(a) strong devotion for one’s own country and its history and culture.
(b) strong devotion for one’s own country without appreciation for other nations.
(c) strong love for one’s own country and hatred for others.
(d) equally strong devotion for all the countries of the world.

Match the term with the statements given below:

A ‘Utopian Society’ is

(i) a society under a benevolent monarchy
(ii) a society that is unlikely to ever exist
(iii) a society under the control of a chosen few wise men
(iv) a society under Parliamentary Democracy

(a) (i) and (ii)
(b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (ii) only
(d) (iii) only

Pick out the correct definition to define the term ‘Plebiscite’.
1. Plebiscite is a direct vote by which only the female members of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.
2. Plebiscite is a direct vote by the female members of a matriarchal system to accept or reject a proposal.
3. Plebiscite is a direct vote by only a chosen few from the total population of a parti-cular region to accept or reject a proposal.
4. Plebiscite is a direct vote by which all the citizens of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.
Ernst Renan believed that the existence of nations is a necessity because

(a) it ensures protection to all inhabitants.
(b) it ensures liberty to all inhabitant citizens.
(c) it ensures Parliamentary form of govern-ment to its inhabitants.
(d) it ensures jobs and good health to all its inhabitants.

Very Short:

Which French artist prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world ?
What do you understand by ‘absolutist’ ?
What is a Utopian ?
What are advantages of a nation ? State one advantage.
What is Plebiscite ?
What political and constitutional changes did take place in the wake of the French Revolution in 1789 ?
State any one step that could create a sense of collective identity among the French people.
Which clubs were set up after the French Revolution and by whom ?
How the Napoleon code was implemented in the regions under French control ?
Why did the people in the conquered territories become hostile to Napoleon’s rule ?

Short Questions:

What was said about Mazzini by Metternich ?
What Metternich remarked about events in France ?
Who was Lord Byron ? What was his contribution in the Greek war of independence ?
What was Romanticism ?
What was contribution of Karol Kurpinski in the freedom struggle of Poland ?
Give one reason for the great economic hardship in Europe in the 1830s.
Who were Grimm brothers ? Why did they collect folktales ?
What happened in 1848 revolution in France ?
Define feminist.
What is ideology ?

Long Questions:

Question: Describe the political condition of Europe in the mid-eighteenth century.
Question: Describe the condition of the aristocracy and peasantry in Europe in the mid-eighteenth century.
Question: When did industrialisation begin in Europe? What were its consequences?
Question: What do you understand by Liberalism? Describe their ideas in the political, social and economic spheres.
Question: Who was granted the right to vote in France during the period of the revolution?

Assertion Reason Questions:

DIRECTION: Mark the option which is most suitable:

If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true, but reason (R) is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Assertion (A) is true, but reason (R) is false.
Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are false.

Assertion (A): There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century.

Reason (R): The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.

DIRECTION: Mark the option which is most suitable:

If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true, but reason (R) is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Assertion (A) is true, but reason (R) is false.
Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are false.

Assertion (A): The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans.

Reason (R): A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

Case Study Questions:

Read the source given below and answer the questions that follow:

Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also townhouses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central Europe, the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs.

Answer the following MCQs by choosing the most appropriate option:

Which was the dominant class on the continent of Europe?

Landed aristocracy.
Tenants.
Small owners.
High-class society.
What did the majority of the population comprise of?

Tenants.
Small owners.
Landholders.
Peasantry.
The given passage describes the social and political life of this class.

Serfs and peasants.
Big landowners.
Aristocracy and middle class.
Peasants and small owners.
Aristocratic class used to speak French for the purpose of:

Diplomacy and high society.
Farming on a big land.
Unity among the members.
Educing regional divisions.
Read the source given below and answer the questions that follow:

Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation. In other words, they represented a country as if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the nation. During the French Revolution artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice, and the Republic. These ideals were represented through specific objects or symbols. The attributes of Liberty are the red cap, or the broken chain, while Justice is generally a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales. Female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nation. In France, she has christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne’s images were marked on coins and stamps. Similarly, Germany became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

NCERT Solutions for Class 6th SSt

Chapter 1

Answer the following MCQs by choosing the most appropriate option:

Why were Female allegories invented by artists?

Representation of heroism.
Representation of Imperialism.
Representation of the modern state.
Representation of the nation.
Which of the following is an allegory for ‘liberty’?

Red Cap.
Crown of Oak.
Olive Branch.
Sword.
What does a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales symbolise?

Peace.
Equality.
Justice.
Liberty.
Which of the following is not true with respect to “Allegory”?

It is a symbol representing an abstract idea.
Artist became an allegory of a nation.
It is an idea expressed through a person or a thing.
An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic.

ANSWER KEY

MCQ:

Answer: a
Answer: a
Answer: b
Answer: b
Answer: a
Answer: b
Answer: c
Answer: c
Answer: d
Answer: c
Answer: b
Answer: a
Answer: b
Answer: d
Answer: b

Very Short Answer:

Answer:

Frederic Sorrieu.

Answer:

Absolutist, literally a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power exercised. In history, the term refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralised, militarised and repressive.

Answer:

Utopian is a vision of society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.

Answer:

The existence of nations is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master.

Answer:

Plebiscite is a direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.

Answer:

The French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.

The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

Answer:

The French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.

The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

Answer:

As the news of events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs.

Answer:

In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

Answer:

The people became hostile due to increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer ihe rest of Europe. All these seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.

Short Answer:

Answer:

Metternich described him as “the most dangerous enemy of our social order”.

Answer:

Metternich once remarked, “When France sneezes, the rest of the Europe catches cold.”

NCERT Solutions for Class 6th SSt

Chapter 1

Answer:

Lord Byron was an English poet.
He organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.

Answer: Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
Answer: Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
Answer:

There was enormous increase in population all over Europe.
In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
Answer:

The Grimm brothers were born in the German city of Hanau in 1785 and 1786 respectively.
They collected folktales and considered their projects of collecting folk-tales and developing the German language as part of the wider effort to oppose French domination and create a German national identity.Answer:
Answer:

Louis Philippe was forced to flee and
National Assembly proclaimed a Republic.
Suffrage was granted to all adult males above 21.
Right to work was guaranteed. National workshops to provide employment were set up.

Answer: Feminist means awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the social, economic and political equality of the genders.
Answer: Ideology is a system of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision.

Long Answer:

Answer:

The political condition of Europe in the mid-eighteenth century was as mentioned below :

(1) There were no nation states

(2) Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.

(3) There were autocratic monarchies in Eastern and Central Europe.

(4) People spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups,

For example, Habsburg Empire consisted of different regions and peoples.
They did not share a collective identity or a common culture,
It included German-speaking people of Bohemia as well as Italian-speaking people of Lombardy and Venetia.
Half of the population of Hungary was Magyar,
Such differences did not promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor.
Answer:

The condition of aristocracy and peasantry was as mentioned below :

(1) Landed aristocracy :

Socially and politically, ,a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent.
They were united by a common way of life, such as owning large estates and town houses,use of French language for diplomacy and in high society.
They were also united with ties of marriage with each other. Thus, aristocracy was powerful but they were in minority.

(2) Peasantry :

The majority of the population was peasants.
To the west, most of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners.
In the Eastern and Central Europe, there were large estates which were cultivated by serfs.
Answer:

(1) Industrialisation : Industrialisation had begun in England in the second-half of the ’ eighteenth century. However, it took place in France and parts of the German states during the nineteenth century.

(2) Its consequences were as mentioned below :

Growth of towns : Emergence of commercial classes – there was growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes in Western and some parts of Eastern Europe. This was due to the growth of industrial production and trade. The existence of commercial classes was based on production for the market.

A new working class and middle classes consisting of industrialists, businessmen, professionals came into existence. It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

Answer:

(1) The term ‘liberalism’ is derived from the Latin word liber, meaning free. Thus, for the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before “law.

(2) Political and economic ideas supported by the liberals were as given below :

(1) Political ideas :

It emphasised the concept of government by consent.
Since the French Revolution, liberalism stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament.
They did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage.
In revolutionary France, which was the first example of liberal democracy, the right to vote and election was exclusively granted to property-owning men. Men without property and women were not granted political rights. Thus in the 19th and 20th centuries there were movements demanding equal political rights.

(2) Economic ideas : They supported freedom of markets and the abolition of state- imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. During the 19th century this was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes. Also see Textbook Question 4.

Answer:

In France, the right to vote and election was granted only to property-owning men.
Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights.
During the period of Jacobins, all adult males were granted right to vote.
The Napoleonic Code again granted limited right to vote. Women were reduced to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
Women and non-propertied men organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Assertion Reason Answer:

(a) If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
(b) If both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true but reason (R) is not the correct explanation of the assertion